Математические статьи
+ переводы
Would you like to have a Russian version of
your web-site?
A.
J. Lohwater's Russian–English Dictionary of the Mathematical Sciences.
Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded. Edited by R. P. Boas. — American Mathematical
Society. Providence, Rhode Island.
Contents |
|
2 |
|
5 |
|
12 |
|
15 |
|
18 |
|
30 |
|
33 |
|
34 |
|
37 |
|
45 |
|
50 |
|
53 |
|
56 |
|
58 |
|
61 |
|
70 |
|
71 |
|
Preface |
This dictionary
is intended for use primarily by speakers of English who need to understand Russian
mathematical writing and/or to translate such writing. As far as possible, the
"definitions" are translations rather than explanations, and reflect
current usage in mathematical writing. The vocabulary has been extensively
enlarged and brought up to date, although it retains some obsolete terms that
may be needed by users who have to consult older literature. Users may
encounter material that has not been composed in the most approved or correct
style. Therefore, some words that are frowned on by Soviet purists have been
retained, or added, because they occur in writing by Soviet authors whose
native language is not Russian, and whose knowledge of Russian is less than
perfect.
The dictionary
must not be inverted: that is, read backwards as an English-Russian dictionary.
We have attempted to give idiomatic translations, but a Russian word is not
necessarily a correct or exact equivalent of the English word that is used to
translate it in a particular context. Just because краевая задача can be correctly translated as "boundary
value problem" does not mean that either, or any part, of the Russian
words means "value."
Many users of the
dictionary have asked for the addition of stress markings on Russian words, and
these have now been supplied. [В этом файле
ударения оставлены только в исключительных случаях, например, в фамилиях
некоторых математиков. Я и сам обычно произношу "Кронекер" и
"Якоби" не так, как
The grammar
section has been rewritten by Alana I. Thorpe of the Brown University
Slavic Department. We have added some notes on Russian mathematical notation.
An appendix contains complete paradigms of a large number of selected words, to
facilitate the identification of irregular inflected forms. The grammar is
intended only for reference. Users who need instruction in Russian grammar
should consult publications that are devoted to that topic.
S. H. Gould's A Manual for Translators of Mathematical
Russian, published by the American Mathematical Society, contains many
useful suggestions that are beyond the scope of the Dictionary.
We have assumed
that users will know enough Russian to be able to recognize inflected forms of
words. We have followed the common practice of listing nouns in the nominative
singular, adjectives in the masculine nominative singular, and verbs in the
imperfective infinitive, with the perfective (if there is one) in parentheses.
Theoretically,
the Russian spelling of foreign names is supposed to represent the
pronunciation used in the original language. Thus,
Adjectives formed
from proper names are not capitalized in Russian. If a word seems strange, it
very well may be such an adjective.
Some entries may
seem unnecessary, because they mean just what they look like. There are,
however, enough Russian words that resemble English words, but mean something
entirely different, that we preferred to include too many rather than too few.
We thank the
hundreds of mathematicians, from many countries, who have made the revision of
the Dictionary possible by contributing suggestions for corrections and
additions.
The Society
intends to update the Dictionary from time to time. Consequently, users are
encouraged to submit additions and corrections to Russian-English Dictionary,
R. P. Boas
Northwestern University
Abbreviations |
abbrev. abbreviation
acc. accusative case
adj. adjective
adv. adverb
cf. compare
colloq. colloquial
compar. comparative
conj. conjunction
dat. dative case
f. feminine
gen. genitive case
imperf. imperfective
instr. instrumental case
loc. locative case
m. masculine
n. neuter
nom. nominative case
num. numeral
ord. num. ordinal numeral
part. participle
perf. perfective
pl. plural
p.n. proper name, personal name
pred. predicate
prep. preposition
pron. pronoun
sing. singular
v. verb
A Short Grammar
Introduction
and Alphabet |
Like any inflected
Indo-European language, the Russian language is studied by means of an analysis
of the declension of nouns and adjectives and the conjugation of verbs,
together with their use in conjunction with prepositions, connectives, etc. The
first obstacle which the beginner encounters, however, is the problem of the
alphabet. Once the alphabet has been learned, the study of Russian becomes
relatively simple, certainly no more difficult than the study of German. The
Russian, or Cyrillic, alphabet is an interesting combination of Roman, Greek,
and Hebrew characters; following the Bolshevik Revolution, the orthography was
revised and modernized, and, in the alphabet given in the following table, the
older characters are listed for the convenience of those readers who must make
occasional references to the pre-Revolution literature. Since the italicized
alphabet is used in places of such critical interest as the statements of
theorems, etc., many phrases and sentences are duplicated in italics in the
grammatical sketch so that the reader will become accustomed to reading
italicized printing.
No universal
agreement has been reached on the transliteration of the Russian alphabet, and
the most commonly used systems of transliteration are given in the following
table. System I is that used by the Library of Congress and is the most
commonly used system for nontechnical literature in the United States.
System II is the system used in Mathematical Reviews from 1980
onward. System III was used in Mathematical Reviews from 1962 to
1979. System IV is a German system which is frequently encountered in
mathematical literature.
The Alphabet
PRINTED |
SOUND |
TRANSLITERATION
|
|||
I |
II |
III |
IV |
||
А а |
ah (father) |
a |
a |
a |
a |
Б б |
b (bed) |
b |
b |
b |
b |
В в |
v (vigor) |
v |
v |
v |
w |
Г г |
g (go) |
g |
g |
g |
g |
Д д |
d (do) |
d |
d |
d |
d |
Е е |
yeh (yet) |
ye,
e |
e |
e |
je |
Ё ё 1 |
yo (yolk) |
ye,
e |
ë |
ë |
jo |
Ж ж |
zh (pleasure) |
zh |
zh |
ž |
sh |
З з |
z (zigzag) |
z |
z |
z |
s |
И и |
ee (feet) |
i |
i |
i |
i |
Й й |
y (toy) |
y |
ǐ |
ǐ |
j |
(І і) 2 |
ee (feet) |
|
|
|
|
К к |
k (king) |
k |
k |
k |
k |
Л л |
l (ball) |
l |
l |
l |
l |
М м |
m (man) |
m |
m |
m |
m |
Н н |
n (nose) |
n |
n |
n |
n |
О о |
o (sort) |
o |
o |
o |
o |
П п |
p (pin) |
p |
p |
p |
p |
Р р |
r (ring, trilled) |
r |
r |
r |
r |
С с |
s (sun) |
s |
s |
s |
s
(ss) |
Т т |
t (time) |
t |
t |
t |
t |
У у |
oo (poor) |
u |
u |
u |
u |
Ф ф |
f (fig) |
f |
f |
f |
f |
Х х |
kh
(like kh in |
kh |
kh |
h |
ch |
Ц ц |
ts (tarts) |
ts |
ts |
c |
z |
Ч ч |
ch (much) |
ch |
ch |
č |
tsch |
Ш ш |
sh (shop) |
sh |
sh |
š |
sch |
Щ щ |
shch (lush cherry) |
shch |
shch |
šč |
stsch |
Ъ ъ 3 |
(silent) |
″ |
″ |
″ |
′ |
Ы ы |
i or e (it, we) |
y |
y |
y |
y |
Ь ь |
(silent) |
′ |
′ |
′ |
j |
(Ђ ђ) 4 |
ye (yet) |
|
|
|
|
Э э 5 |
e (ten) |
e |
è |
è |
e |
Ю ю |
yu (you) |
yu |
yu |
yu |
ju |
Я я |
ya (yard) |
ya |
ya |
ya |
ja |
(Θ
θ) 6 |
f (fat) |
|
|
|
|
(V v) 7 |
ee (meet) |
|
|
|
|
Usually written as е although the
pronunciation of ё is
retained. ↑ |
|
Replaced by и in the
post-Revolution orthography. ↑ |
|
Used only as a separation mark after certain consonants; sometimes
replaced by the symbols ′ or ″ in the middle of words, and
dropped altogether when used at the end of a word in the old
orthography. ↑ |
|
Replaced by е in the
post-Revolution orthography. ↑ |
|
Retained in the post-Revolution orthography, but replaced by е in certain words. ↑ |
|
Replaced by ф in the
post-Revolution orthography. ↑ |
|
Replaced by и in the
post-Revolution orthography. ↑ |
The
Noun |
Russian is an inflected
language; its nouns and adjectives are declined into six cases depending upon
their function in a sentence. Also, nouns are grouped into three genders,
A.
Functional Description of |
1.
Nominative case. A noun in the nominative case denotes the subject or the predicate
nominative.
a.
Subject.
Мы знаем. → We know.
Студент знает. →
The student knows.
b.
Predicate
nominative.
Они студенты. →
They are students.
c.
The nominative form is the one
listed in the dictionaries.
2.
Genitive case. A noun appears in the genitive case when expressing any of the
following:
a.
Possession.
работа профессора → the professor's work, the work of the professor
У
профессора работа. → The professor has work.
b.
"Of"
clauses.
решение уравнения → the solution of the equation
c.
Object
of negation.
Число X не превосходит этой
величины. → The number X
does not exceed the magnitude.
d.
Complement
of certain verbs.
Мы
достигнем результата. → We shall achieve the
result.
e.
Following numbers (except the number one and any compound with the number one):
i.Genitive singular following 2, 3,
and 4, as well as any compounds in which the final component is 2, 3, or 4
(e.g., 22, 33, 54): три (3) книги, "three books"
ii.Genitive plural following 5 through
20, as well as any compounds in which the final component is 5, 6, etc.: пять (5) книг, "five books"
f.
Following
words denoting quantity.
Сколько теорем? →
How many theorems?
много теорем →
a lot of theorems
3.
Dative case. A noun appears in the dative ease in the following environments:
a.
Indirect
object.
Студент читает доклад профессору. → The student gives (reads) a paper to
the professor.
b.
Impersonal expressions (sentences in which there is no grammatical subject):
Ивану легко читать по-русски. → It's easy for John to read
Russian.
Студенту надо заниматься. → The student must study. It
is necessary for the student to study.
4.
Accusative case. A noun in the accusative case denotes the direct object: рассмотрим сумму,
"let us consider the sum." In the accusative singular of masculine
animate nouns, the accusative coincides in form with the genitive singular,
while inanimate nouns exhibit the usual accusative endings: он читал доклад (inanimate masculine object доклад), "he read the paper"; он видел студента (animate masculine object студент), "he saw the student."
Feminine nouns have only one form of the accusative in the singular. However,
in the plural, all animate nouns, regardless of gender, have the form of the
accusative which coincides with the genitive plural, while the accusative for
inanimate nouns coincides with the nominative plural.
5.
Instrumental case. A noun in the instrumental case denotes the following:
a.
Means by which something is done.
выражать формулой →
to express by a formula
Он
пишет мелом. → He writes with chalk.
b.
Agent in a passive construction.
Статья написана Иваном. → The article is written by
John.
c.
Manner
of action.
говорить тихим голосом → to speak in a quiet
voice
6.
Locative case. A noun occurs in the locative case after the following prepositions:
в: в городе → in the city
на: на собрании → at the meeting
о: о проблеме → about the problem
In addition to the above uses, each preposition requires its object to
be in a particular case. As described above under the Locative case, the three
prepositions в, на, and о require the locative case. The preposition
между requires
the instrumental case, while the preposition около requires the genitive case. The
preposition and its object, which may include one or more adjectives as well as
the noun or pronoun, are adjacent to each other in a given sentence. See the
table of prepositions below.
Also, certain verbs require their objects to be in a particular case.
For instance, the verb называться (to be called, to be named) generally requires
its object to be in the instrumental case. However, there has been a tendency
for this verb to require the nominative case, as well.
7.
Word order. Word order in Russian is flexible because each noun and its modifiers
are in a particular case which expresses a specific meaning. In English, the
word order subject-verb-object is the standard, while in Russian this order is
not mandatory. Because the subject of a sentence is in the nominative case, the
subject may appear at the end of the sentence; the reader can always identify
the subject by its case. Similarly, the direct object is in the accusative
case, while the indirect object appears in the dative case; these objects may
appear anywhere in the sentence because the reader can always identify them by
their cases. However, the word order subject-verb-object appears frequently.
There are constraints, of course, in the ordering of components within a
sentence. For instance, a preposition is not separated from its object, nor is
a noun separated from its adjective in a noun phrase. Thus, noun phrases and
prepositional phrases are generally placed as units within a sentence.
Mathematical symbols are of course not inflected, so that, strictly
speaking, Russian cannot say "the number of edges
A further very common ambiguity arises when an author wants to describe
an object and give it a name. For example, if we have a sequence of increasing
continuous functions and want to name
B.
Nominative Endings of Nouns |
In general,
masculine nouns end in a consonant with or without a soft sign, feminine nouns
in the vowels
1.
Masculine nouns may end in a consonant,
with or without a
a.
Consonant.
интеграл, ранг, выигрыш
b.
Consonant
plus -ь.
делитель
c.
-й:
случай, край
2.
Feminine nouns may end in
a.
-а:
сторона, задача
b.
-я:
потеря
c.
-ия:
функция
d.
-ь:
часть, приводимость, вещь
3.
Neuter nouns may end in
a.
-о:
место, множество
b.
-e:
поле, море
c.
-ие:
отображение
d.
-мя:
время, имя
4.
The plural endings for masculine,
feminine, and neuter nouns in the nominative are as follows:
a.
Masculine and feminine plural:
интегралы, случаи, профессора,
стороны, задачи (f.)
b.
Neuter
plural:
множества, поля, отображения
C. Case
Endings of Nouns |
The endings given
above in part B are those of the nominative case. Each of the other five
cases exhibits its own set of endings for singular and plural. For nouns
derived from adjectives, refer to the section on the adjective for a complete
list of endings.
1.
Genitive
case.
a.
Masculine nouns have the following
endings:
i.Singular:
-а, -я
случай (nom. sing.), случая (gen. sing.)
интеграл (nom. sing.), интеграла (gen. sing.)
ii.Plural:
-ов, -ев, -ей
ранг (nom. sing.), рангов (gen. pl.)
случай (nom. sing.), случаев (gen. pl.)
делитель (nom. sing.), делителей (gen. pl.)
b.
Feminine nouns have the following
endings:
i.Singular:
-ы, -и
перестановка (nom. sing.),
перестановки (gen. sing.)
сторона (nom. sing.), стороны (gen. sing.)
задача (nom. sing.), задачи (gen. sing.)
потеря (nom. sing.), потери (gen. sing.)
ii.Plural:
-Ø, -ь, -и, -ей 1
сторона (nom. sing.), сторон_
(gen. pl.)
задача (nom. sing.), задач_ (gen. pl.)
перестановка (nom. sing.), перестановок_ (gen. pl.) 2
потеря (nom. sing.), потерь (gen. pl.)
часть (nom. sing.), частей (gen. pl.)
функция (nom. sing.), функций (gen. pl.)
c.
Neuter nouns have the following
endings:
i.Singular:
-а, -я
место (nom. sing.), места (gen. sing.)
отображение (nom. sing.), отображения (gen. sing.)
ii.Plural:
-Ø, -и, -ей
место (nom. sing.), мест_ (gen. pl.)
отображение (nom. sing.), отображений (gen. pl.)
поле (nom. sing.), полей (gen. pl.)
2.
Dative
case.
a.
Masculine and neuter nouns have the
following endings in the singular:
i.Examples
of masculine nouns:
интеграл (nom. sing.),
интегралу (dat. sing.)
случай (nom. sing.), случаю (dat. sing.)
ii.Examples
of neuter nouns:
место (nom. sing.), месту (dat. sing.)
отображение (nom. sing.), отображению (dat. sing.)
b.
Feminine nouns have the following
endings in the singular:
сторона (nom. sing.), стороне (dat. sing.)
потеря (nom. sing.), потере (dat. sing.)
функция (nom. sing.), функции (dat. sing.)
часть (nom. sing.), части (dat. sing.)
c.
The plural endings in the dative case
are identical for masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns:
i.Examples
of masculine nouns:
интеграл (nom. sing.),
интегралам (dat. pl.)
случай (nom. sing.), случаям (dat. pl.)
ii.Examples
of neuter nouns:
место (nom. sing.), местам (dat.
pl.)
отображение (nom. sing.), отображениям (dat. pl.)
iii.Examples
of feminine nouns:
сторона (nom. sing.),
сторонам (dat. pl.)
потеря (nom. sing.), потерям (dat. pl.)
функция (nom. sing.), функциям
(dat. pl.)
3.
Accusative
case.
a.
Masculine nouns have the following
endings:
i.Singular:
-Ø, -а 3
интеграл (nom. sing.),
интеграл_ (acc. sing.)
профессор (nom. sing.), профессора (acc. sing.)
ранг (nom. sing.), ранг_ (acc. sing.)
ii.Plural: -ы, -и, -ов (and other genitive plural endings)
интеграл (nom. sing.), интегралы (acc. pl.)
студент (nom. sing.), студентов (acc. pl.)
b.
Feminine nouns have the following
endings:
i.Singular:
-у, -ю, -ь
сторона (nom. sing.), сторону
(acc. sing.)
потеря (nom. sing.), потерю (acc. sing.)
часть (nom. sing.), часть (acc. sing.)
ii.Plural:
-ы, -и 4
сторона (nom. sing.), стороны
(acc. pl.)
перестановка (nom. sing.), перестановки (acc. pl.)
c.
Neuter nouns have the following
endings:
i.Singular:
-о, -е
место (nom. sing.), место (acc. sing.)
поле (nom. sing.), поле (acc. sing.)
ii.Plural:
-а, -я
ме́сто (nom. sing.),
места́ (acc. pl.)
по́ле (nom.
sing.), поля́
(acc. pl.)
Note
the normal stress shift.
4.
Instrumental
case.
a.
Masculine and neuter nouns have the
following endings in the singular:
i.Examples
of masculine nouns:
интеграл (nom. sing.),
интегралом (instr. sing.)
делитель (nom. sing.), делителем (instr. sing.)
ii.Examples
of neuter nouns:
место (nom. sing.), местом (instr. sing.)
поле (nom. sing.), полем (instr. sing.)
b.
Feminine nouns have the following
endings in the singular:
сторона (nom. sing.), стороной (instr. sing.)
функция (nom. sing.), функцией (instr. sing.)
часть (nom. sing.), частью (instr. sing.)
c.
The plural endings in the dative
case are identical for masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns:
i.Examples
of masculine nouns:
интеграл (nom. sing.),
интегралами (instr. pl.)
делитель (nom. sing.), делителями (instr. pl.)
ii.Examples
of neuter nouns:
место (nom. sing.), местами (instr.
pl.)
поле (nom. sing.), полями (instr. pl.)
iii.Examples
of feminine nouns:
сторона (nom. sing.),
сторонами (instr. pl.)
функция (nom. sing.),
функциями (instr. pl.)
5.
Locative
case.
a.
Masculine nouns have the following
ending in the singular:
интеграл (nom. sing.), интеграле (loc. sing.)
делитель (nom. sing.), делителе (loc. sing.)
b.
Neuter nouns have the following
endings in the singular:
место (nom. sing.), месте (loc. sing.)
отображение (nom. sing.), отображении (loc. sing.)
c.
Feminine nouns have the following
endings in the singular:
сторона (nom. sing.), стороне
(loc. sing.)
часть (nom. sing.), части (loc. sing.)
d.
The plural endings in the locative
case are identical for masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns:
i.Examples
of masculine nouns:
интеграл (nom. sing.),
интегралах (loc. pl.)
делитель (nom. sing.), делителях (loc. pl.)
ii.Examples
of feminine nouns:
сторона (nom. sing.),
сторонах (loc. pl.)
потеря (nom. sing.), потерях (loc. pl.)
iii.Examples
of neuter nouns:
место (nom. sing.), местах (loc.
pl.)
отображение (nom. sing.),
отображениях (loc. pl.)
D. Nouns
with Stem Changes |
There are several
sets of nouns which exhibit stem changes throughout their declensions. Among
these are the
1.
Two important feminine nouns are
found in the
мать (nom. sing.), матери (gen. sing.)
дочь (nom. sing.), дочери (gen. sing.)
2.
Among the
небо (nom. sing.), небеса
(nom. pl.)
3.
Two important neuter nouns are found
in the
имя (nom. sing.), имени (gen. sing.)
время (nom. sing.), времени (gen. sing.)
E. Proper Names |
Proper names in Russian
are declined. Last names may end in an adjectival ending, which decline as
adjectives, or they may end in
Russian names
ending in
Footnotes
The symbol -Ø refers to a zero-ending; all nouns consist
of a stem plus ending, and technically all endings are vocalic. Thus,
masculine nouns in the nominative, ending in a consonant, actually exhibit a
zero-ending. In the genitive plural of the feminine noun сторона, the nominative singular ending |
|
Often when a zero-ending is required, a consonant cluster results,
such as the |
|
Notice that the masculine accusative singular and masculine nominative
singular are identical for masculine inanimate nouns. However,
masculine animate nouns in the accusative coincide with the genitive.
Many mathematical terms ending in |
|
In the accusative plural, the forms of inanimate nouns
of all genders coincide with those of the nominative plural, while the
forms of animate nouns coincide with the genitive plural. ↑ |
The
Adjective |
The adjective in
Russian may occur in both a long form and a short form. It also expresses the
positive, comparative, and superlative degrees. Moreover, the long-form adjective
is declined; it agrees with the corresponding noun in gender, number, and case.
A. |
Adjectives can be
used in the attributive position, as in новая книга, "the new book," or the predicate
position, as in книга новая, "the book is new." 1 Thus, an adjective used
attributively occurs next to the noun it modifies without a linking verb, while
an adjective used predicatively is separated from the noun it modifies by a
linking verb. In the latter case, the predicate adjective refers back to the
subject of the clause, which is in fact the noun the adjective modifies. The
long form of an adjective is used in either an attributive or predicative
position.
The long-form
adjective is declined into all six cases, and both types of adjective express
the three genders in the singular, while there is no gender distinction in the
plural. The difference in form between the two types of adjective is in the
form of the ending; the short form exhibits a simple ending, while the long form
exhibits a compound ending. 2 In the above example, the
short-form adjective ending is
Adjectives may in
some instances stand alone and act as nouns, although they still decline as
long-form adjectives: кривая, "a curve," is a feminine noun; подынтегральный, "an integrand," is a
masculine noun.
1.
The long form of the adjective. The adjectives сложный, "complicated," and дуговой 3, "arc," are declined into
all the cases in singular and plural, and in the three genders.
сложный вопрос →
a complicated question (m.)
сложная задача →
a complicated problem (f.)
сложное решение →
a complicated solution (n.)
a.
сложный;
stem: сложн-
Singular |
Plural |
||||||
m. |
|
f. |
|
n. |
|
||
nom. |
сложный |
сложная |
сложное |
сложные |
|||
gen. |
сложного |
сложной |
сложного |
сложных |
|||
dat. |
сложному |
сложной |
сложному |
сложным |
|||
acc. |
сложный |
сложную |
сложное |
сложные |
|||
instr. |
сложным |
сложной |
сложным |
сложными |
|||
loc. |
сложном |
сложной |
сложном |
сложных |
b.
c.
дуговой;
stem: дугов-
Singular |
Plural |
||||||
m. |
|
f. |
|
n. |
|
||
nom. |
дуговой |
дуговая |
дуговое |
дуговые |
|||
gen. |
дугового |
дуговой |
дугового |
дуговых |
|||
dat. |
дуговому |
дуговой |
дуговому |
дуговым |
|||
acc. |
дуговой |
дуговую |
дуговой |
дуговые |
|||
instr. |
дуговым |
дуговой |
дуговым |
дуговыми |
|||
loc. |
дуговом |
дуговой |
дуговом |
дуговых |
d.
2.
The short form of the adjective. The adjectives правый and голодный appear below in their short forms. The simple endings are added to the adjectival
stem, which is identical to the stem of the long form.
a.
Правый;
stem: прав-
прав (m. sing.), права (f.
sing.)
право (n. sing.), правы (pl.)
b.
Голодный;
stem: голодн-
голоден (m. sing.), голодна (f.
sing.)
голодно (n. sing.), голодны (pl.)
Note that in the adjective голодный, the masculine singular short form exhibits
what appears to be an alternate stem. This occurs in a number of adjectives; an
3.
A complete reference chart of
adjectival endings appears in the Appendix.
B. |
The Russian
adjective occurs not only in the positive degree, whose forms have been given
in the previous section, but also in the comparative and superlative degrees.
1.
The comparative degree of the
adjective may be expressed in two ways.
a.
Suffixation. The suffix -ее (and -е in certain adjectives) is added to the adjectival stem. This form is
invariable. For the adjective сложный, "complex," the
comparative form is сложнее, "more complex," while the comparative of большой, "large," is больше, "larger."
b.
Use of the words более, "more," and менее, "less." These words are used in conjunction with the positive adjective in
either its long or short form, depending upon its use in the sentence. Более and менее are not inflected, but the long-form adjective used is declined.
более ранняя теорема Белинского → an earlier theorem of Belinskii
в
более узком смысле → in a narrower sense
2.
The comparative conjunction (English
"than") in Russian is the word чем. However, a comparison may be
expressed without the word чем by declining the second item into the genitive case.
Неравенство (11) слабее чем
3.
The superlative degree may be
expressed in several ways, some used more frequently than others.
a.
Use of the word самый followed by the adjective. Both the adjective and the word самый, which is also an adjective, are declined,
самый сложный →
most complex
самой интересной теоремы → of the most
interesting theorem
b.
Suffixation. The suffix -ейш, -айш is added to the adjectival stem, and the adjectival endings are added
to the resultant form.
новый, новейший → new, newest
важный, важнейший → important, most important
высокий, высочайший → high, highest 4
While a common translation of this form is "the most complex
theorem," the use of this form generally indicates a high, although not
superlative, degree of the adjective, such as "a most complex
theorem."
c.
Use of the prefix наи-. This
occurs infrequently.
наисильнейший → strongest
d.
Use of the word наиболее instead of самый. Although far less common in usage than самый, наиболее may precede the adjective and is indeclinable.
наиболее интересный → most
interesting
e.
Use of the word всех in the predicate. The comparative form (that form of
the adjective ending in
сложнее всех →
(the) most complex one (of all)
C. Formation
of Adjectives from Proper Names |
Adjectives may be
formed from proper names by adding the following suffixes:
Footnotes
Notice the absence of the verb "to be" in the present tense.
In the past and the future tenses of the verb "to be," the long-form
predicate adjective may appear in either the instrumental or the nominative
case: лекция были интересной, лекция была интересна. ↑ |
|
As in the nominal case endings, a masculine short-form adjective which
apparently ends in a consonant, such as нов, actually expresses the vocalic |
|
Note that in the masculine adjective declension, those adjectives
which have stress on the stem have the ending |
|
Note the consonant changes in the stem; this is consistent with the
following common consonant alternations: |
The
Pronoun |
The various
pronouns in Russian, like the nouns and adjectives, are declined. The use of
each type of pronoun is described below, while complete paradigms of the pronouns
are found in the Appendix.
A. The Personal Pronoun |
The Russian
personal pronouns correspond to the English "I," "you,"
"he," "she," "it," etc. However, unlike English,
and like French, Russian expresses the difference between the "formal
you" and the "informal you." That is, the second-person singular
form ты is used
in familiar circumstances, while вы, the second-person plural form is used in more
polite and formal address. (However, the informal style is uncommon in
mathematical writing.) Вы is also used to express plurality when more than one person is
addressed in conversation.
1.
The following table lists the
personal pronouns in the nominative case.
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
1st
person
|
я
(I) |
мы
(we) |
||
2nd
person |
ты
(you) |
вы
(you) |
||
3rd
person |
он (he, it) |
они
(they) |
2.
3.
The third-person personal pronouns,
in the singular and plural, prefix an н- when
they are objects of a prepositional phrase.
его: m. acc. sing., 3rd-person personal
pronoun without a preposition
Профессор видел его. → The professor saw him.
ним: m. instr. sing., 3rd-person personal
pronoun as object of
Профессор говорил с
ним. → The
professor spoke with him.
B. The Possessive
Pronoun-Adjectives |
Presentation of
the possessive pronoun-adjectives is best divided into two categories: first-
and second-person pronouns and third-person pronouns.
1.
First- and second-person possessive
pronouns. The pronouns of the first- and second-person agree
with the noun possessed in gender, number, and case. Also, in Russian, there is
no distinction (as in English) between "my X" and
"mine," "your X" and "yours," etc.
a.
The pronouns in the nominative.
1st person singular (my, mine): мой (m.), мой (f.), моё (n.), мой (pl.)
2nd person singular (your, yours): твой (m.), твой (f.), твоё (n.), твои (pl.)
1st person plural (our, ours): наш (m.), наша (f.), наше (n.), наши (pl.)
2nd person plural (your, yours): ваш (m.), ваша (f.), ваше (n.), ваши (pl.)
b.
Examples of the possessive pronouns.
моё решение → my solution
Это решение моё. → This solution is mine.
наша задача →
our problem
Эта задача наша. → This problem is ours.
2.
Third-person possessive pronouns. These pronouns often cause some confusion; they are identical in form
to the genitive of the third-person personal pronouns.
Unlike the first- and second-person possessive pronouns, the
third-person pronouns do not agree in gender, number, or case with the noun possessed,
nor do they ever change form. They are: его (his), её (her, hers), их (their, theirs).
Её профессор читал доклад. → Her professor read the paper.
Он говорил с её профессором. → He spoke with her professor.
The second sentence above indicates that unlike the third-person personal
pronouns, these possessive pronouns never prefix н- when they are part of the object of a
preposition.
3.
The pronoun свой declines like мой, твой. This pronoun-adjective helps to avoid certain ambiguities often found in
English: e.g., "He read his paper" ("his" may refer to the
subject of the clause, "he," or to another male previously
indicated).
Он читал его доклад. → He read (gave) his (someone else's)
paper.
Он
читал свой доклад. → He read (gave) his (own) paper.
The pronoun свой and the subject to which it refers must be in the same clause or
sentence.
C. The Demonstrative Pronouns |
This category
includes the pronouns этот (this), тот (that), and такой (such). The full declension of these pronouns is given in the Appendix.
Demonstrative pronouns agree in gender, number, and case with the nouns they
modify.
Тот and такой may be followed by же to express identity and similarity:
из того же равенства следует → from the same equation follows
такая же группа → a similar group
D. The
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns |
The interrogative
pronouns include кто (who), что
(what), чей
(whose), какой
(which, what kind), and который (which, who). Declensions are given in the Appendix.
The relative pronoun
requires some explanation. Который is a relative pronoun, and as such it links
two clauses together:
Проблема, которую мы ставили, были сложная. → The problem, which we posed, was
complex.
Note that the
relative pronoun not only agrees in gender and number with the noun it
replaces, but it also appears in the case required by its function within the
relative clause. In this sentence, the pronoun is feminine and singular as it
refers to проблема,
and is in the accusative case because it is the direct object of the verb ставили.
E. The Negative Pronouns |
The pronouns никто (nobody), ничто (nothing), никакой (no, no sort of), and ничей (nobody's) are declined like the
corresponding positive interrogative pronouns. Note, however, that when used in
conjunction with a preposition, the preposition is inserted between the ни- and the appropriate form of the pronoun.
ничто: ни о
чём → about
nothing
Also, double
negatives are the rule in Russian phrases containing negative pronouns.
Никто не ответил на вопрос профессора. → No one answered the professor's
question.
F. The Definite Pronouns |
The category of
definite pronouns includes the following: каждый (each, every, everybody), всякий (any, anybody, all sorts of), сам (myself, yourself, himself, etc.),
and весь (all,
whole, everybody, everything). The full declensions appear in the Appendix.
Каждый and
всякий act
attributively as well as standing alone as subjects:
У каждого студента решение. → Each student has a solution.
У каждого решение. → Everyone has a solution.
Сам is
used to intensify or emphasize. In the following sentence, сам is used to emphasize the subject
Я сам не знаю, как решить эту задачу. → I myself don't know how to solve this
problem.
The
Verb |
One of the
distinguishing characteristics of the Russian language is the notion of verbal
aspect. There are two aspects in Russian: the imperfective aspect and the
perfective aspect. In its simplest definition, the imperfective aspect
indicates that an action is in progress, that it has not necessarily been, nor
will be, completed, or is continuous or recurring. Conversely, the perfective
aspect indicates that an action has been, or will be, completed, or that there
has been, or will be, a definite result.
In languages that
do not have special grammatical forms to express verbal aspect, the
distinctions described above are rendered by the many verbal tenses, such as
the perfect and pluperfect. Consequently, since Russian does exhibit verbal
aspect, its inventory of tenses is minimal. In fact, Russian has only three
tenses: past, present, and future. Furthermore, perfective verbs have no
present tense, since they describe a completed action, and thus are used only
in the past and future tenses.
Most Russian
verbs have two infinitives — an imperfective infinitive and a perfective
infinitive. For instance, the verb "to read" in Russian has the
imperfective infinitive читать and the perfective infinitive прочитать. The imperfective verb читать appears in all three tenses, while
the perfective form прочитать appears only in the past and future tenses:
читать
(imperfective infinitive)
Я читаю книгу. → I read, I am reading, I do read the book
Я читал (читала, читало, читали) 1 книгу. → I read, I was reading, I did
read the book (but did not finish reading it)
Я буду читать книгу.
→ I will read, I will be reading the book (but will not finish reading
it)
прочитать (perfective infinitive)
Я прочитаю книгу. →
I will read the book (and will finish reading it)
Я прочитал (прочитала,
прочитало, прочитали) 1
книгу. → I read, I have
read, I did read the book (and did finish it)
Notice that the
imperfective future tense is compound, while the perfective future is simple.
The first component of the compound future construction, буду of буду читать, is the future tense of the verb
Мы будем называть функцию
Although a great
number of imperfective and perfective verb pairs may be derived from each other
by affixation (adding or removing a prefix, suffix, or infix), not all pairs
are easily recognized as pairs by their form. In the dictionary, the
imperfective verb is listed with its definition, with the perfective form given
in parentheses. The perfective form may be listed with or without a definition,
but is usually referenced to its imperfective. When no perfective form is
indicated, this is not necessarily an oversight: some verbs do not have a
perfective aspect, some have only the perfective, and many, especially verbs
adopted from other languages, have the same form in both aspects. (These
special situations are not usually mentioned in the dictionary, since
nonexistent forms do not have to be translated.) The definition may be repeated
for the perfective form when the imperfective and perfective are widely
separated in the dictionary. The perfective forms of reflexive or passive verbs
are not usually mentioned if the corresponding active forms are given.
A. The
Verb "To Be" |
The verb "to be" (быть) is very important in Russian, as in all languages. Following is the conjugation of быть:
|
||||||
он,
она, оно есть |
he,
she, it is |
они
суть |
they
are |
|||
|
||||||
я
буду |
I
will be |
мы
будем |
we
will be |
|||
ты
будешь |
you
will be |
вы
будете |
you
will be |
|||
он,
она, оно будет |
|
he, she, it will be |
|
они
будут |
|
they
will be |
|
||||||
я
был, была |
I
was |
мы
были |
we
were |
|||
ты
был, была |
you
were |
вы
были |
you
were |
|||
он
был |
he, it was |
они
были |
they
were |
1.
It has already been illustrated that
the present tense of быть is usually omitted in Russian sentences. Review the following sentence:
Неравенство (11) слабее чем
Consider also the following sentence:
Предложение P эквивалентно Q. → Proposition P is equivalent
The present tense of быть, "to be," is omitted in both
sentences. However, often a
Если E — некоторое множество
точек комплексной
Occasionally, the forms есть and суть, from быть, are used:
Граница этой области есть окружность Kr, где
Матрицы суть спиновые матрицы Паули. → The matrices are the Pauli spin
matrices.
2.
Unlike the present tense, the future
and past tenses of быть are never omitted. Furthermore, when быть is used in the future or the past,
the predicate is often in the instrumental case:
Если α алгебраическая величина относительно Σ, a Σ — алгебраическое поле относительно Δ, то
α будет алгебраическим
3.
The verb являться. The verb являться (to appear, to present oneself) is
often used to replace the present tense of
Такая функция существует и является
единственной. → Such a
function exists and is unique.
Единственными изоморфизмами топологической группы T в себя являются тождественное отображение и симметрия
Вероятность P будет являться
абстрактной копией эмпирической частоты. → The probability P will be an abstract counterpart of the
empirical frequency ratio.
В. Verb Conjugations |
Russian verbs are
classified as members of either the first or second conjugation, according to
their nonpast personal endings. It is possible, however, for a verb to exhibit
a mixed conjugation; that is, some of its endings are those of the first
conjugation, while the rest are from the second. The following chart shows the
endings of the two conjugations:
First Conjugation |
Second Conjugation |
|||||||
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
||
1st
person
|
-ю
(-у) |
-ем |
-ю
(-у) |
-им |
||||
2nd
person |
-ешь |
-ете |
-ишь |
-ите |
||||
3rd
person |
-ет |
-ют
(-ут) |
-ит |
-ят
(-ат) 3 |
The verb читать is of the first conjugation: я читаю,
ты читаешь, он читает, мы читаем, вы читаете, они
читают. The verb говорить is of the second conjugation: я говорю,
ты говоришь, он говорит, мы говорим, вы говорите, они
говорят. The forms in
parentheses, first person singular and third person plural, are common
alternate endings and occur when dictated by certain spelling conventions.
A verb typically
consists of several components when fully conjugated, although there are
variations; perfective verbs, for instance, have no present tense, and thus no
present participles. Among the inventory of components are the infinitive, the
present, future, and past tenses (the indicative mood), the imperative mood,
the conditional mood, the present participles, the past participles, and the
gerund, or adverbial participle.
1.
Sample verb conjugations. The following are sample conjugations. The Appendix includes a more
comprehensive set of paradigms, as well as a list of common irregular verbs and
their conjugations. The paradigms in the Appendix follow the given format, but
are somewhat condensed and abbreviated where possible (for instance, only the
masculine form of a participle is given).
делать (imperfective), "to do" |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
present
tense |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
я
делаю |
I do, I am doing |
мы
делаем |
we
do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ты
делаешь |
you
do |
вы
делаете |
you
do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
он
делает |
he,
it does |
они
делают |
they
do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
она
делает |
she,
it does |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
оно
делает |
it
does |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
я
буду делать |
I
will do |
мы
будем делать |
we
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ты
будешь делать |
you
will do |
вы
будете делать |
you
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
он
будет делать |
he,
it will do |
они
будут делать |
they
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
она
будет делать |
she,
it will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
оно
будет делать |
it
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
я
делал |
I did, I was doing |
мы
делали |
we did, we were doing |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ты
делал(а) |
you did, |
вы
делали |
you did, |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
он
делал |
he, it did, |
они
делали |
they did, |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
она
делала |
she, it did, |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
оно
делало |
it did, |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
делая |
doing, making, if we make |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
сделать (perfective), "to do" |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
no
present tense |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
я
сделаю |
I
will do |
мы
сделаем |
we
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ты
сделаешь |
you
will do |
вы
сделаете |
you
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
он
сделает |
he,
it will do |
они
сделают |
they
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
она
сделает |
she,
it will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
оно
сделает |
it
will do |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
я
сделал |
I
did |
мы
сделали |
we
did |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ты
сделал(ла) |
you
did |
вы
сделали |
you
did |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
он
сделал |
he,
it did |
они
сделали |
they
did |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
она
сделала |
she,
it did |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
оно
сделало |
it
did |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
сделав |
having
done, having made |
2.
3.
The infinitive. The infinitive does not indicate person or tense — it describes the
action. The infinitive is translated as "to X"; the imperfective
infinitive делать is translated as
It is the infinitive of the verb which is listed in the dictionary.
Therefore, it is important for the reader of Russian to convert to the
infinitive before looking in the dictionary. While it would be impossible here
to give a formal and complete description of the relation between the
infinitive types and all the conjugations, without a lengthy linguistic
explanation, the following generalizations should be helpful. The reader should
remove the conjugated ending (i.e., the present and future tense endings, which
are collectively called nonpast endings, and the past tense ending) to find a
stem. If working with a past tense, whose stem is equivalent to the infinitive
stem, the infinitive is easily determined by dropping the past tense suffix and
adding the infinitive ending. Generally, if the stem ends in a vowel, the
However, when working from a verb with two different stems, one in the
infinitive and one in the nonpast, sometimes a regular consonant mutation is
present: писать,
пишу, пишешь, etc. The
щ
from ск, ст |
ш
from с, к |
ж
from з, г, д |
ч
from к, т |
жд
from д |
мл,
пл, вл, бл, фл from м, п, в, б, ф |
If the stem ends in a
If the stem ends in some other consonant and the verb is first
conjugation, the
When an alternation occurs in a first-conjugation verb, except those in
Also, in the Appendix are several sample paradigms which will assist the
reader in determining infinitives. The Appendix also lists several of the most
common irregular verbs and their conjugations.
4.
The present, future, and past tenses
(the indicative mood). These forms have already been
introduced at the beginning of this section. To review, the imperfective verbs
have all three tenses, while perfective verbs have only past and present
tenses. The future tense of imperfective verbs is compound; the future tense of
perfective verbs is simple. 6 The compound future tense is formed
with the appropriate form (person and number) of the future tense of
Reflexive verbs end in the particle
|
||||
present |
я
занимаюсь |
мы
занимаемся |
||
past |
занимался,
занималась, занималось, занимались |
5.
The imperative mood. The imperative form of a verb is also known as the "command":
"Solve the problem, read your paper." The imperative, as in English, has
the understood subject "you." In Russian, since there are two
6.
The conditional mood. The conditional is formed by following the past tense form of the verb
with the
Он
читал бы. → He should have read. He would
have read.
7.
Participles. Participles are verb forms which act as adjectives. They retain the quality
of transitivity if the verb is transitive, intransitivity if the verb is
intransitive. A participle also retains the aspect of the verb from which it is
formed.
a.
Participles may be present or past
tense:
студент, читающий доклад →
a student who read/is reading a paper
студент, читавший доклад →
a student who read/was reading/had been reading a paper
Note the adjectival endings on the participles. Participles agree in
gender, number, and case with the nouns they modify.
b.
Participles are also active or
passive. An active participle describes the noun which is the agent of the
action, whereas a passive participle describes the noun which is the object of
the action.
студент, прочитавший доклад →
the student who had read the paper
статья, прочитанная студентом → the article read by the student
Note that the agent of the passive participle is in the instrumental
case. Passive participles are formed only from transitive verbs (those which
take direct objects); reflexive verbs, which are intransitive, thus do not form
passive participles.
c.
Formation
of the participle.
i.Present active participles
Add the suffix plus adjectival endings to the present-tense stem.
§
1st-conjugation verbs add
читать – чита/ют – чита/ющ/ий, читающий
§
2nd-conjugation verbs add
говорить – говор/ят – говор/ящ/ий, говорящий
ii.Past active participles
Add the suffix plus adjectival endings to the past-tense stem.
§
If the stem ends in a vowel, add
читать – чита/л – чита/вш/ий, читавший
§
If the stem ends in a consonant, add
нес/ти – нёс – нёс/ш/ий, нёсший
iii.Present passive participles
Add the suffix plus adjectival endings to the stem of the present tense.
§
1 st-conjugation verbs add
читать – чита/ют – чита/ем/ый, читаемый
рисовать – рису/ют – рису/ем/ый, рисуемый
§
2nd-conjugation
verbs add
любить – люб/ят – люб/им/ый, любимый
iv.Past passive participles
Add the suffix plus adjectival endings to
прочитать – прочита/л – прочита/нн/ый, прочитанный
взять – взя/л – взя/т/ый, взятый
принести – принёс – принес/ённ/ый, принесённый
изучить – изучи/л – изуч/енн/ый, изученный 7
v.Participles from reflexive verbs
Participles ending in the reflexive particle always take the
vi.Short-form participles
Because participles are adjectival in form, they may occur as short-form
participles. However, only passive participles have both the long and short
forms; active participles occur only in the long form. Short-form participles
are used as the predicate of a passive construction. They consist of stem plus
suffix plus short-form adjective endings. Like short-form adjectives, they are
only used as predicate adjectives, and so they do not decline. The suffixes
прочитать – прочитан
решить – решён
занять – занят
8.
9.
The adverbial participle, or the
gerund. The adverbial participle exhibits properties of both
the verb and the adverb. Verbs ending in the reflexive particle exhibit the
particle in the gerund, and the gerund exhibits the aspect of the verb from
which it is derived. The form of the gerund, as with all adverbs, is
invariable. It acts as a modifier by describing the environment in which the
action of the predicate verb occurs. The adverbial participle may be past or
present; past participles are formed from perfective verbs and refer to actions
occurring prior to the action of the main verb, while present participles are
formed from imperfective verbs and refer to actions occurring simultaneously
with the action of the main verb.
a.
Past adverbial participles. The suffix
прочитать – прочита/л – прочита/в,
прочитав → having read
сказать – сказа/л – сказа/в, сказав → having said
написать – написа/л – написа/в, написав → having written
принести – принёс – принёс/ши, принёсши → having brought
Прочитав доклад, он ответил на вопросы
профессора. → Having
read the paper, he answered the professor's questions.
b.
Present adverbial participles. The suffix
читать – чита/ют – чита/я, читая →
reading
Отвечая на вопрос профессора, он
сделал ошибку. → In
answering the professor's question, he made a mistake.
c.
Gerunds from verbs ending in the
reflexive particle
10.
Auxiliaries:
должен, нужно, нельзя, можно, мочь. These verbs, adverbs, and adjectives
are translated as auxiliaries.
a.
Должен, "must, ought to." This
form is used as a short adjective and is usually followed by an infinitive.
должен (m.), должна (f.),
должно (n.), должны (pl.)
Должны быть удовлетворены граничные
условия. → The boundary
conditions must be satisfied.
b.
Нужно, надо, "must, it is necessary," нельзя, "must not, it is impossible, cannot." These forms are invariable and take the logical subject if there is
one, in the dative case, and are followed by the infinitive.
Чтобы представить уравнение в
номографической форме, нужно сначала найти зквивалентный детерминант. → То represent an equation nomographically (in
nomographic form), we must first find an equivalent determinant.
Теорему Абеля нельзя распространить на
пути, касательные единичной окружности. → It is not possible to extend Abel's theorem to paths which are
tangent to the unit circle.
c.
Можно, "may, can, it is possible." This
form is invariable and is followed by the infinitive.
Используя интеграл Фурье, можно
сконструировать сферические или цилиндрические волны из плоских волн. → By using the Fourier
integral, it is possible to construct spherical or cylindrical waves out of
plane waves.
d.
Мочь, "to be able to." This
verb is conjugated as follows:
|
||
я
могу |
мы
можем |
|
|
||
|
||
|
active |
e.
f.Видоизменения
центральной предельной теоремы могут всё ещё показать, что распределение
приближённо нормально. →
Modifications of the central limit theorem may still show that the distribution
is approximately normal.
C. The
Verbs of Motion |
The verbs of
motion, or more specifically, of going and carrying, exhibit a
further distinction within the imperfective category. While the majority of
verbs have only one imperfective form to describe two separate types of action
(i.e., action in progress and habitual action), the verbs of motion have two
imperfective forms which distinguish these separate meanings. The determinate
imperfective describes an action (going or carrying) in progress and in a
specific direction. The indeterminate imperfective describes habitual
actions (going or carrying) and actions in which no specific direction is
involved.
For instance, the
two imperfective forms of "to go by one's own means" are the
indeterminate ходить and the determinate идти:
Профессор ходит (ходил) в лабораторию каждый день. → The professor goes (went) to
the laboratory every day.
Профессор идёт (шёл, когда я его видела) в лабораторию. → The professor is going (was
going, when I saw him) to the laboratory.
The conjugations
of these two verbs are as follows:
ходить (indeterminate imperfective),
"to go by one's own means" |
|||
present |
хожу |
ходим |
|
past |
ходил,
ходила, ходило, ходили |
||
идти (determinate imperfective),
"to go by one's own means" |
|||
present |
иду |
идём |
|
past |
шёл,
шла, шло, шли |
||
Note
the past tense of идти: он шёл, она шла, оно шло,
они шли. |
The perfective of
the verb "to go by one's own means" is пойти:
Где профессор? Он пошёл в лабораторию. → Where is the professor? He has gone to
the lab.
The conjugation
of the verb пойти
is as follows:
пойти (perfective), "to go by
one's own means" |
|||
future |
пойду |
пойдём |
|
past |
пошёл,
пошла, пошло, пошли |
||
Note that the past tense of пойти corresponds to that of идти plus, |
Other common
verbs of motion include the following:
ездить (indeterminate imperfective),
"to ride" |
|||
present |
езжу |
ездим |
|
past |
ездил,
ездила, ездило, ездили |
||
ехать (determinate imperfective),
"to ride" |
|||
present |
еду |
едем |
|
past |
ехал,
ехала, ехало, ехали |
||
поехать
(perfective), "to ride" |
|||
present |
поеду |
поедем |
|
past |
поехал,
поехала, поехало, поехали |
||
носить (indeterminate imperfective),
"to carry" |
|||
present |
ношу |
носим |
|
past |
носил,
носила, носило, носили |
||
нести (determinate imperfective),
"to carry" |
|||
present |
несу |
несём |
|
past |
нёс,
несла, несло, несли |
||
понести
(perfective), "to carry" |
|||
present |
понесу |
понесём |
|
past |
понёс,
понесла, понесло, понесли |
||
Note the past tense of нести and понести. |
|||
возить (indeterminate imperfective),
"to carry (by vehicle)" |
|||
present |
вожу |
возим |
|
past |
возил,
возила, возило, возили |
||
нести (determinate imperfective),
"to carry (by vehicle)" |
|||
present |
везу |
везём |
|
past |
вёз,
везла, везло, везли |
||
понести (perfective), "to carry (by
vehicle)" |
|||
present |
повезу |
повезём |
|
past |
повёз,
повезла, повезло, повезли |
||
Note the past tense of везти and повезти. |
Furthermore,
these verbs of going and carrying may be prefixed by "directional
prefixes." For example, the verb приносить/принести means "to bring"; the
verb уносить/унести means "to carry away," or
"to take away." The prefix при- means "up to," while у- means "away." These prefixed compounds have only two forms:
imperfective and perfective.
Footnotes
Note that in the past tense forms, gender is distinguished in the
singular, but not in the plural. The endings are the zero-ending for
masculine subjects, |
|
These forms are archaic but do appear. ↑ |
|
These endings are "nonpast" endings; they are used for the
imperfective present tense as well as the perfective future. ↑ |
|
This verb is reflexive; the suffix |
|
Note the loss of the stem-final consonant in deriving the infinitive. ↑ |
|
Note, however, that in form, the endings of the perfective future are
the same as those of the imperfective present tense. Therefore, care must be
taken to determine whether the verb is perfective or imperfective. ↑ |
|
Note the loss of stem-final vowel in forming this participle. ↑ |
Some Comments |
The difference in
the sense of the imperfective and perfective can be emphasized by exhibiting
both aspects of the same verb in one sentence. (It is recommended that each
word in the sentence be looked up in the dictionary; the superscripts refer to
the comments immediately following the translation.)
(1) |
Прежде чем1
доказывать,2
что все собственные значения матрицы A удовлетворяют3
Before we go on
to prove (or, Before we prove) that all the eigenvalues of the matrix A
satisfy
Notes
Under the entry прежде appears the
phrase прежде чем as a conjunction, meaning before,
which is usually followed by an infinitive. ↑ |
|
The infinitive here can be rendered in many ways, the simplest and
most usual way being "Before proving |
|
Imperfective infinitive is удовлетворять; the conjugation
is like выполнять in
Appendix D. ↑ |
|
Perfective form доказать from the
imperfective infinitive доказывать (see
Appendix D). Although докажем is first-person
plural, future indicative, the translation "we prove" is as correct
as "we shall prove," since the two renderings are fully equivalent
in the context of the sentence. ↑ |
|
The expression общий наибольший делитель will be found listed
in the dictionary after each of the three words in the phrase, since a
literal rendering with the same |
|
The phrase присоединённой к |
|
The word то is the
conjunction then, not the demonstrative pronoun. ↑ |
(2) |
Для каждой строго возрастающей1 последовательности σ индексов
множество Aσ
открыто2
в
For every
strictly increasing sequence of indices σ, the set Aσ is open in
Notes
Present participle, having the form of an adjective; this form is
listed as an adjective in the dictionary. ↑ |
|
Short form, neuter, of открытый (open) indicates
a predicative use with the verb |
|
Note that его is not declined,
even though it is linked to образ. ↑ |
|
The verb являться (to be) is
followed by the instrumental case. ↑ |
|
отношение эквивалентности (lit. relation of
equivalence) is the usual way of expressing the English phrase equivalence
relation. In Russian, the noun "equivalence" cannot be used as
an adjective without adding an adjectival ending. It is quite possible to
form the adjective эквивалентностный (equivalence,
pert. to an equivalence) and write эквивалентностное отношение (equivalence relation), but
it lacks one essential ingredient: it is not the idiomatic expression for
"equivalence relation" in Russian. ↑ |
|
This is the present passive participle индуцируемый of индуцировать (to induce) and has a
second meaning "inducible"; both meanings are given in the
dictionary. ↑ |
|
This phrase in parentheses may or may not be inserted, at the
discretion of the translator. ↑ |
(3) |
Если областью,1
в которой задана2
начальная температура
If the domain,
in which the initial temperature
Notes
Instrumental case with являться (to be). ↑ |
|
Short form, feminine, of заданный; a predicative
use is indicated here, and the passive participle gives the passive sense to
the translation. ↑ |
|
всё is an adjective,
and its synonyms often give a smoother translation than
"all." ↑ |
|
The conjunction "then" rather than the neuter of тот. ↑ |
|
The same use of the passive participle as in note 2; the |
(4) |
Для того, чтобы1
этот процесс имел2
смысл, необходимо,3
чтобы4
он давал единственный результат.
In order that
this process have meaning, it is necessary that it give a unique result.
Notes
для того, чтобы is the usual phrase
"in order that," and the verb to follow is always subjunctive or
conditional. ↑ |
|
The conditional or subjunctive mood of иметь (to have); the particle бы has been attached to the что (that) in the clause. ↑ |
|
Note the short form and the implied predicative. ↑ |
|
The conditional of давать (to give) is давал бы, and the
particle бы usually combines
|
(5) |
Повторяя1
это рассуждение, мы получим2
тот же3
результат для функции
By repeating this
argument, we obtain the same result for the function
Notes
Adverbial participle of повторить (to repeat); the
translation of повторяя could have been
rendered by "Repeating" or "If we repeat," to suit the
taste of the translator. ↑ |
|
Perfective form, and the future "we shall obtain" has the
same sense, in the context, as "we obtain." ↑ |
|
Note the pair тот же under тот or under же in the dictionary. ↑ |
(6) |
Распределение, задаваемое1 функцией плотности2
The distribution
defined by the frequency function
Notes
Present passive participle задаваемый of задавать (to define, etc.). ↑ |
|
Cf. note 5 under example 2 of this section. ↑ |
|
Short form of the participle использованный; with было the verb is passive. ↑ |
|
The past active participle писавший of писать (to write); it may also be rendered as
"who wrote" or "who was writing," the latter expressing
literally the imperfective aspect of the verb. ↑ |
|
When a Western surname is introduced into Russian for the first time,
the original spelling in the Roman alphabet used sometimes to follow the
transliteration into Russian; this is rarely done today. ↑ |
(7) |
Примеры § 1 показывают, что ряд может быть сходящимся,1 не будучи2 абсолютно сходящимся.1
The examples of
§ 1 show that a series can be convergent without being absolutely
convergent.
Notes
Instrumental case of the predicate following the simple past or simple
future of быть. ↑ |
|
Adverbial participle of быть. ↑ |
Some
Special Verbs |
Examples of a
number of auxiliary verbs and forms, such as must, can, etc.,
will be given in this section. Please refer to the section concerning modals in
The Verb for further discussion.
1.
Если
скоростью частицы нельзя пренебречь по сравнению со скоростью света c
или энергией её нельзя пренебречь по сравнению с энергией покоящейся массы, то
необходимо пользоваться
The English words
"must," "ought to," and "should" may also be
rendered by следует followed by the infinitive; the past is следовало бы (should have, ought to have); for example
2.
Следует
быть острожным при использовании этой формулы. →
One must be careful in using this formula.
3.
Вам следовало бы исключить сначала A, затем B. →
You should have eliminated A first, and then B.
Note. Следует may also have its usual meaning
"follows," for example
4.
Из (2) следует, что ... → It follows
5.
Самодуальному
тензору Gρσ можно сопоставить симметрический спинор второго ранга grs. →
With a
6.
Для
заданного ε можно найти такое δ, что1
Notes
Literally, "such а δ that"; this is the usual Russian
construction. ↑ |
|
Adverbial participle; note that фиксировать is both
perfective and imperfective. ↑ |
|
Same comment as in note 1. ↑ |
7.
Может
показаться, что такое явление трудно объяснить. →
This phenomenon may seem difficult to explain.
8.
Если
бы мы имели в своём распоряжении большее число точных
9.
Если мы проинтегрируем функцию
10.
Ответ
на этот вопрос может дать ключ ко всей проблеме. →
The answer to this question may give the key to the whole problem.
The
Adverb |
Unlike the noun
and the adjective in Russian, the form of the adverb is invariable.
A.
Formation of the Adverb |
1.
Most adverbs are formed from
corresponding adjectives by replacing the adjectival ending
хороший – хороши → good – well
плохой – плохо → bad – badly
интересный – интересно → interesting – interestingly
могучий – могуче → powerful – powerfully
Note that these forms may resemble the neuter short-form adjective and should
not be confused.
2.
Adjectives ending in -ский form corresponding adverbs in
английский – по-английски →
English – in English
практический – практически → practical – practically
теоретический – теоретически → theoretical – theoretically
3.
Adverbs may also be formed by use of
case endings, resulting in an invariable form:
a.
по- plus the dative singular of the corresponding
adjective:
настоящий – по-настоящему → real
– really
b.
The instrumental singular of a noun:
полностью → fully
4.
Some adverbs are not formed
from corresponding adjectives by adverbial suffixation. These include the following:
здесь → here
там → there
сюда → to here
туда → to there
отсюда → from here
оттуда → from there
очень → very
5.
The adverb may express degree:
a.
The adverbial comparative degree is
equivalent in form to that of the adjective. The suffix
интересно → interestingly (adv.)
интереснее → more interesting (adj.), more
interestingly (adv.)
Он говорит интересно. → He speaks interestingly.
Она говорит интереснее, чем он. → She speaks more
interestingly than he does.
b.
The superlative degree is the
comparative degree plus всех (of all):
Он решил задачу раньше всех. → He solved the problem
earlier than all the rest.
c.
As in adjectival comparative
constructions, the comparative conjunction than is expressed by using
the word чем:
Они решили задачу раньше, чем мы. → They solved the problem
earlier than
B. Uses of
the Adverb |
1.
Adverbs may modify verbs, adjectives,
and other adverbs:
Он
правильно решил задачу. → He solved the problem correctly.
Профессор читал очень интересный
доклад. → The professor
read a very interesting paper.
Студент очень быстро ответил на вопрос
профессора. → The
student answered the professor's question very quickly.
2.
Adverbs may be used in the predicate
in impersonal constructions (sentences which lack a grammatical subject):
a.
These constructions may express a
state or condition:
i.State
of environment
Здесь холодно. →
It is cold here.
В кабинете тепло и светло. → It is warm and light in the
study.
Эту задачу трудно решить. → It is difficult to solve this
problem.
ii.State
of necessity or possibility
Нужно правильно решить задачу. → It is necessary to solve the problem
correctly.
Здесь нельзя курить. → Smoking is not allowed
here.
b.
When a logical subject is required,
a noun or pronoun in the dative case may be used:
Ему холодно. →
He is cold.
Эту задачу студенту трудно решить. → It is difficult for the student
to solve this problem.
Note that the verb in such constructions is in the infinitive.
c.
In the past tense, these
constructions use the neuter past form of
Трудно было решить задачу. → It was difficult to solve the
problem.
Профессору будет легко выполнить это
задание. → It will be
easy for the professor to carry out this task.
The
Preposition |
The meanings of
many of the common English prepositions are already embodied in the case
endings of the Russian nouns and pronouns; the most obvious instance is, of
course, the implicit rendering of the preposition "of" by the
genitive case, the preposition "by" with the instrumental, for
example, применённый автором (applied by the author), etc. The
table below gives some of the more commonly used Russian prepositions,
including adverbial participles, and the corresponding cases together with some
typical phrases.
Preposition |
Case
|
Illustration |
без
(безо) |
gen. |
без потери общности → without loss of generality без кратных точек → without multiple points |
благодаря |
dat. |
благодаря применению новых методов → because of the application of new methods благодаря сферической симметрии |
в (во) |
acc. |
множество A переходит в
|
loc. |
в точке z0 → at the point z0 почти во всех точках в результате → as a result в 1952 г. → in 1952 |
|
вблизи |
gen. |
поле сконцентрируется вблизи экваториальной плоскости → the field is
concentrated near the equatorial plane Если |
вдоль |
gen. |
интеграл, взятый вдоль единичной окружности → the integral taken
around the unit circle интеграл взят вдоль вдоль соответствующих сторон → along the corresponding
sides |
включая |
acc. |
включая бесконечно удалённую точку → including the point
at infinity |
вместо |
gen. |
вместо обычных функций → instead of the usual functions |
вне |
gen. |
вне единичной окружности → outside the unit circle, exterior to the
unit circle |
внутри |
gen. |
внутри области D → interior to the равномерно сходится внутри области D → converges uniformly on
compact subsets of the |
внутрь |
gen. |
где |
вокруг |
gen. |
Интеграл взят вокруг вращение вокруг точки |
для |
gen. |
для всех n → for all n для того, чтобы → in order that |
до |
gen. |
мы интегрируем от точки z1 до расстояние до изображения → distance to the image (i.e., image distance)
приведены выражения только до членов третьего порядка → expressions are given only up to the third order дополнение A до полного пространства → the complement of A with respect to the whole space |
за |
acc. |
продолжать за период немногим более четырёх лет → in a period of a little over four years за время t0 → at time t0 Если за закон композиции принять сложение двух чисел за один оборот → in one revolution (per revolution) число частиц, рассеянных за единицу времени → the number of
particles scattered per unit time |
instr. |
за исключением величины A → with the
exception of the |
|
из |
gen. |
меньший из элементов A, B →
the smaller of the elements A, B одно из множеств En → one of the состоящий из конечного числа дуг → consisting of a
finite number of arcs Из (1) следует, что ... → It follows Многочлены определяются из равенств |
из-за |
gen. |
Последнюю из теорем не приводим из-за громоздкости предварительных
условий → We do not cite the last of the theorems because of the
awkwardness of the preliminary conditions |
изнутри |
gen. |
Жидкость вытекает через ds изнутри круга → The
liquid flows across ds from within the circle |
исключая * |
acc. |
Пусть u, v и U, V — две пары
функций, обладающие всеми указанными в |
* This is the adverbial participle formed from исключать
and means literally "excluding" or "excepting." The word
has a second meaning in extensive use, for example Исключая t из двух
последних равенств, получаем |
||
к
(ко) |
dat. |
правая часть стремится к нулю → the right-hand side
tends to zero Pn
стремится к некоторому пределу → произведение расходится к нулю → the product diverges to zero теорема применена к контуру, охватывающему начало → the theorem is applied to a contour which surrounds the origin ко времени написания → at the time of writing замечания к предыдущей теореме → remarks on the previous
theorem |
кончая |
instr. |
кончая октябрём → until October |
кроме |
gen. |
кроме точек множества, мера которого равна нулю → except
for a set of measure zero **
кроме случая, в |
** Literally, "except for points of a set, the
measure of which is equal to zero" the Russian is frequently phrased in
this way. |
||
между |
instr. |
между этими точками → between these points отношение между уравнениями (1) |
на |
loc. |
на границе умножая уравнение (8) на e–xt и |
acc. |
ограничения на поведение отображая круг задача на обтекание → a flow problem (a problem on flow) на расстояние r от начала → at a distance r from the origin вращение на некоторый угол → a rotation about some angle Области Dn разобьём на два класса → We (shall) divide the domains Dn into two classes сила на единицу объёма → force per unit volume с характеристиками, отличающимися от характеристик |
|
над |
instr. |
слой над x → a fibre over x высота над осью → height above the axis пики над точками |
начиная
с |
gen. |
начиная с достаточно больших |
несмотря
на |
acc. |
несмотря на то, что |
о
(об) |
loc. |
теорема о среднем значении → mean-value theorem (theorem
about the mean value) о высших инвариантах Хопфа → on the higher Hopf invariants об одном обобщении функций → concerning a generalization
of functions |
около |
gen. |
эмпирические значения jp обычно составляют Полное движение ускоряемых частиц можно описать колебаниями их
около адиабатически изменяющейся равновесной орбиты → The general
motion of accelerated particles can be described by their oscillations about
an adiabatically varying equilibrium orbit |
от |
gen. |
интеграл не зависит от выбора независимый от выбора базиса → independent of the choice of basis Мы переходим от одной системы к новой системе → We go
over from one system to a new system |
относительно |
gen. |
гиперкомплексная система относительно коммутативного поля →
a hypercomplex system over a commutative field Поле Σ расширения называется алгебраическим относительно
Δ, гармоническая мера E относительно относительно функции T(t), см. § 2,
п. 1 → concerning the function |
перед |
instr. |
Цифры в круглых скобках, стоящие перед различными группами
обозначений → numbers in parentheses preceding various groups of
symbols Перед эпсилоновыми доказательствами вставляется интуитивный
набросок. → Preceding the epsilon-proofs, there is an intuitive sketch. |
по |
dat. |
по теореме 1 → by Theorem 1 индукция no n → induction разложение по степеням z → expansion in powers первое слагаемое по модулю не превосходит ε → the first term does not exceed ε in modulus дифференцируя (19) по x лекция по теории идеалов → a lecture on ideal theory (the theory of ideals) по отношению к дуге Γ → with respect to the arc Γ по отношению E → modulo E сходится по мере → converges in measure по всем некасательным путям → along all nontangential
paths |
под |
instr. |
под знаком интеграла → under the integral sign под углом θ → at an angle θ Под n-м корнем из единицы подразумеваем корень полинома |
после |
gen. |
после отображения B после подстановки → after a substitution |
при |
loc. |
при фиксированном r → for при всех при угле падения → at the angle of incidence при нормальном падении → at normal incidence при условиях теоремы 1 → under the hypotheses of Theorem 1 При разложении по степеням x мы получаем при конформном отображении круга |
против |
gen. |
против паза ротора → opposite the slot of the rotor против часовой стрелки → counter-clockwise |
путём |
gen. |
путём разложения по степеням x → by means of an
expansion in powers путём сопоставления → by way of contrast Путём сравнения (1) с ранее установленным Гулдом выражением для
|
с
(со) |
instr. |
со скоростью v → with velocity v с равенством только для корень с порядком n → a root of |
gen. |
с другой стороны → on the other hand с 1952 г. → since 1952 с бесконечно большой длиной волны → of infinite wave length продолжить с интервала |
|
согласно |
dat. |
согласно предыдущему, согласно определению → according to the definition |
среди |
gen. |
среди экстремальных функций → among the extremal
functions |
у |
gen. |
у него есть решение → he has a solution Изложение у нас более подробное, чем Для молекул, у которых инверсионным удвоением пренебрегать Штрих у знаков суммы означает, |
через |
acc. |
поток через единичную площадку → the flow across a unit
area выражаются через импульсы → (they) are expressed in terms of the momenta функция продолжается через Обозначим через [a], как обычно, целую часть Элементы множества A могут быть обозначены через a1, прямые, не проходящие через начало → straight lines not
passing through the origin |
Cardinal
and Ordinal Numbers |
In Russian, as in English, numerals may be divided into two categories, cardinal (one, two, three, etc.) and ordinal (first, second, third, etc.). The following table lists the cardinal and ordinal numbers in Russian; the cardinal numbers appear first, and the ordinals follow the semicolon:
1 |
один
(m.), одна (f.), одно (n.), одни (pl.); первый,
первая, первое |
2 |
два
(m., n.), две (f.); второй, -ая, -ое |
3 |
три;
третий, -ья, -ье |
4 |
четыре;
четвёртый, -ая, -ое |
5 |
пять;
пятый, -ая, -ое |
6 |
шесть;
шестой, -ая, -ое |
7 |
семь;
седьмой, -ая, -ое |
8 |
восемь;
восьмой, -ая, -ое |
9 |
девять;
девятый, -ая, -ое |
10 |
десять;
десятый, -ая, -ое |
11 |
одиннадцать;
одиннадцатый, -ая, -ое |
12 |
двенадцать;
двенадцатый, -ая, -ое |
13 |
тринадцать;
тринадцатый, -ая, -ое |
14 |
четырнадцать;
четырнадцатый, -ая, -ое |
15 |
пятнадцать;
пятнадцатый, -ая, -ое |
16 |
шестнадцать;
шестнадцатый, -ая, -ое |
17 |
семнадцать;
семнадцатый, -ая, -ое |
18 |
восемнадцать;
восемнадцатый, -ая, -ое |
19 |
девятнадцать;
девятнадцатый, -ая, -ое |
20 |
двадцать;
двадцатый, -ая, -ое |
21 |
двадцать
один (m.); двадцать первый |
25 |
двадцать
пять; двадцать пятый, -ая, -ое |
30 |
тридцать;
тридцатый, -ая, -ое |
35 |
тридцать
пять; тридцать пятый, -ая, -ое |
40 |
сорок;
сороковой, -ая, -ое |
50 |
пятьдесят;
пятидесятый, -ая, -ое |
60 |
шестьдесят;
шестидесятый, -ая, -ое |
70 |
семьдесят;
семидесятый, -ая, -ое |
80 |
восемьдесят;
восьмидесятый, -ая, -ое |
90 |
девяносто;
девяностый, -ая, -ое |
100 |
сто;
сотый, -ая, -ое |
200 |
двести;
двухсотый, -ая, -ое |
300 |
триста;
трёхсотый, -ая, -ое |
400 |
четыреста;
четырёхсотый, -ая, -ое |
500 |
пятьсот;
пятисотый, -ая, -ое |
600 |
шестьсот;
шестисотый, -ая, -ое |
700 |
семьсот;
семисотый, -ая, -ое |
800 |
восемьсот;
восьмисотый, -ая, -ое |
900 |
девятьсот;
девятисотый, -ая, -ое |
1000
|
тысяча;
тысячный, -ая, -ое |
106 |
миллион;
миллионный, -ая, -ое |
109 |
миллиард;
миллиардный, -ая, -ое |
1012 |
биллион;
биллионный, -ая, -ое |
A. Ordinal Numbers |
Both types of numeral are declined. Ordinal numbers are adjectival in form, and thus simply follow the adjectival declension. In compound ordinals, however, only the final component is in the ordinal (adjectival) form:
двадцать
пятый,
twenty-fifth: |
|
двадцать
пятого (gen. sing.) |
The only ordinal number which requires additional explanation is
the adjective "third," or третий (m.), третья (f.),
третье (n.). Notice that the feminine and neuter adjectival
endings are not the expected compound endings
B. Cardinal Numbers |
Declensions of the cardinal numbers are found in the Appendix. Note that only the numbers "one" and "two" distinguish gender; the number "one" has the following forms which follow the declension of этот: один (m.), одна (f.), одно (n.), and одни (pl.); the number "two" exhibits the form два for masculine and neuter nouns and the form две for feminine nouns.
1.
Use
of case with numbers.
Numbers may occur in any of the cases, depending upon their function in the
sentence.
a.
The
number "one" is essentially an adjective, and as such agrees in
gender, number, and case with its noun. The plural form, одни, is used
when the following noun occurs only in the plural:
Если одни часы колеблются с
When the number "one" is part of a compound number, both the number "one" and the noun remain in the singular:1
Он написал пятьдесят одну статью. → He wrote fifty-one articles.
The word один may also express the
meanings "certain," "alone,"
Одни математики согласились с Лобачевским. → Certain mathematicians agree with Lobachevsky.
одна теорема Лобачевского → a theorem of Lobachevsky
b.
When
the numbers два, две, три, and четыре (and
compounds ending in them) are used in the nominative and inanimate accusative
(which looks like the nominative), the accompanying noun appears in the
genitive singular:
два примера: (gen. sing. of
пример) → two examples
разбить на 2 интеграла (gen. sing. of интеграл) → to split into two integrals
Пусть i, j, k —
три вектора единичной
If the noun following the number is preceded by an adjective, it may be in either the genitive plural or the nominative plural (although the noun is genitive singular in both instances). Generally, the genitive plural is used with masculine and neuter nouns, while the nominative plural is used with feminine nouns:
три сложных примера → three complex examples (masculine noun)
три сложные книги → three complex books (feminine noun)
Вводя три единичных вектора i1, i2,
If the item following the number is a substantivized adjective, that is, an adjective acting as a noun, the word is treated as an adjective under the above conditions:
две переменных → two variables
две кривые → two curves
c.
When
the numbers пять (five) and up through девятнадцать (nineteen), and
any compound numbers ending in five, six, seven, eight, nine, or zero are in
the nominative or inanimate accusative cases, both the noun and its adjective
appear in the genitive plural:
тридцать шесть русских книг →
thirty-six Russian books
d.
When
a number is used in a case other than the nominative or inanimate accusative,
the number and the noun and adjectives following that number are in the plural
of that particular case.2 In other words, the number no longer determines the case of
the adjective and noun following it; rather, it agrees in case with the
following noun. In compound numbers, all components decline:
из двадцати новых книг → from
twenty new books
из двадцати двух новых книг → from twenty-two new books
Если угол между двумя зеркалами
V является функцией 12 величин. → V is a function of twelve variables.
e.
Nouns
following the numbers тысяча, миллион, and миллиард are usually
in the genitive plural, regardless of the case in which the number is being
used. These words are declined as nouns.
2.
Indefinite
numerals.
When the actual number is unspecified, the noun following the number is usually
in the genitive plural:
Пусть уравнение
Similarly, the expressions of quantity много (much, many), мало (little, few), несколько (several, some, a few) are indefinite numerals. When the noun following them can be counted, it appears in the genitive plural; when the noun can be measured but not counted, it is in the genitive singular:
Приведём несколько примеров. → We cite a few examples.
Имеется много различных вариантов. → Many different variants are possible.
мало света, много воды → a little light, a lot of water
The above are sentences in which the indefinite numerals are in the nominative or accusative case. These expressions may themselves occur in the other cases as well; the nouns following them occur also in that particular case, and generally in the plural:
много новых книг → many new books (nominative plus genitive plural)
из многих новых книг → from many new books (all in genitive plural)
со многими новыми книгами → with many new books (all in instrumental plural)
Footnotes
Unless the noun occurs only in
the plural, like the Russian word for "clock," in which case they
will be plural. ↑ |
|
If the number is a compound
ending in "one," the noun is in the singular. ↑ |
Some
|
tg = tan
ctg = cotangent
sh = sinh
ch = cosh
Ареа- before a hyperbolic function means the inverse of the function
Appendixes
Appendix
A: The Noun |
Nouns with Stem Changes |
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
nom. |
мать |
матери |
дочь |
дочери |
|||
gen. |
матери |
матерей |
дочери |
дочерей |
|||
dat. |
матери |
матерям |
дочери |
дочерям |
|||
acc. |
мать |
матерей |
дочь |
дочерей |
|||
instr. |
матерью |
матерями |
дочерью |
дочерями |
|||
loc. |
матери |
матерях |
дочери |
дочерях |
|||
|
|
|
|
||||
nom. |
имя |
имена |
время |
времена |
|||
gen. |
имени |
имён |
времени |
времён |
|||
dat. |
имени |
именам |
времени |
временам |
|||
acc. |
имя |
имена |
время |
времена |
|||
instr. |
именем |
именами |
временем |
временами |
|||
loc. |
имени |
именах |
времени |
временах |
|||
|
|
||||||
nom. |
небо |
небеса |
|||||
gen. |
неба |
небес |
|||||
dat. |
небу |
небесам |
|||||
acc. |
небо |
небеса |
|||||
instr. |
небом |
небесами |
|||||
loc. |
небе |
небесах |
Proper Names |
m. |
|
f. |
|
m. |
|
f. |
|
nom. |
Александров |
Александрова |
Белинский |
Белинская |
|||
gen. |
Александрова |
Александровой |
Белинского |
Белинской |
|||
dat. |
Александрову |
Александровой |
Белинскому |
Белинской |
|||
acc. |
Александрова |
Александрову |
Белинского |
Белинскую |
|||
instr. |
Александровым |
Александровой |
Белинским |
Белинской |
|||
loc. |
Александрове |
Александровой |
Белинском |
Белинской |
Masculine Nouns |
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
nom. |
интеграл |
интегралы |
ранг |
ранги |
|||
gen. |
интеграла |
интегралов |
ранга |
рангов |
|||
dat. |
интегралу |
интегралам |
рангу |
рангам |
|||
acc. |
интеграл |
интегралы |
ранг |
ранги |
|||
instr. |
интегралом |
интегралами |
рангом |
рангами |
|||
loc. |
интеграле |
интегралах |
ранге |
рангах |
|||
|
|
|
|
||||
nom. |
случай |
случаи |
делитель |
делители |
|||
gen. |
случая |
случаев |
делителя |
делителей |
|||
dat. |
случаю |
случаям |
делителю |
делителям |
|||
acc. |
случай |
случаи |
делитель |
делители |
|||
instr. |
случаем |
случаями |
делителем |
делителями |
|||
loc. |
случае |
случаях |
делителе |
делителях |
Feminine Nouns |
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
nom. |
сторона |
стороны |
перестановка |
перестановки |
|||
gen. |
стороны |
сторон |
перестановки |
перестановок |
|||
dat. |
стороне |
сторонам |
перестановке |
перестановкам |
|||
acc. |
сторону |
стороны |
перестановку |
перестановки |
|||
instr. |
стороной |
сторонами |
перестановкой |
перестановками |
|||
loc. |
стороне |
сторонах |
перестановке |
перестановках |
|||
|
|
|
|
||||
nom. |
потеря |
потери |
функция |
функции |
|||
gen. |
потери |
потерь |
функции |
функций |
|||
dat. |
потере |
потерям |
функции |
функциям |
|||
acc. |
потерю |
потери |
функцию |
функции |
|||
instr. |
потерей |
потерями |
функцией |
функциями |
|||
loc. |
потере |
потерях |
функции |
функциях |
|||
|
|
|
|
||||
nom. |
вещь |
вещи |
приводимость |
приводимости |
|||
gen. |
вещи |
вещей |
приводимости |
приводимостей |
|||
dat. |
вещи |
вещам |
приводимости |
приводимостям |
|||
acc. |
вещь |
вещи |
приводимость |
приводимости |
|||
instr. |
вещью |
вещами |
приводимостью |
приводимостями |
|||
loc. |
вещи |
вещах |
приводимости |
приводимостях |
Neuter Nouns |
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
nom. |
место |
места |
поле |
поля |
|||
gen. |
места |
мест |
поля |
полей |
|||
dat. |
месту |
местам |
полю |
полям |
|||
acc. |
место |
места |
поле |
поля |
|||
instr. |
местом |
местами |
полем |
полями |
|||
loc. |
месте |
местах |
поле |
полях |
|||
|
|
||||||
nom. |
отображение |
отображения |
|||||
gen. |
отображения |
отображений |
|||||
dat. |
отображению |
отображениям |
|||||
acc. |
отображение |
отображения |
|||||
instr. |
отображением |
отображениями |
|||||
loc. |
отображении |
отображениях |
Appendix
B: The Adjective |
Adjectival Endings |
Singular |
Plural |
||||||
m. |
|
f. |
|
n. |
|
||
nom. |
-ый/-ий,
ой |
-ая/-яя |
-ое/-ее |
-ые/-ие |
|||
gen. |
-ого/-его |
-ой/-ей |
-ого/-его |
-ых/-их |
|||
dat. |
-ому/-ему |
-ой/-ей |
-ому/-ему |
-ым/-им |
|||
acc. |
-ый/-ий,
ой |
-ую/-юю |
-ое/-ее |
-ые/-ие |
|||
instr. |
-ым/-им |
-ой/-ей |
-ым/-им |
-ыми/-ими |
|||
loc. |
-ом/-ем |
-ой/-ей |
-ом/-ем |
-ых/-их |
Adjective Paradigms |
Singular |
Plural |
||||||
m. |
|
f. |
|
n. |
|
||
nom. |
ложный |
ложная |
ложное |
ложные |
|||
gen. |
ложного |
ложной |
ложного |
ложных |
|||
dat. |
ложному |
ложной |
ложному |
ложным |
|||
acc. |
ложный |
ложную |
ложное |
ложные |
|||
instr. |
ложным |
ложной |
ложным |
ложными |
|||
loc. |
ложном |
ложной |
ложном |
ложных |
|||
|
|
||||||
m. |
f. |
n. |
|||||
nom. |
двойной |
двойная |
двойное |
двойные |
|||
gen. |
двойного |
двойной |
двойного |
двойных |
|||
dat. |
двойному |
двойной |
двойному |
двойным |
|||
acc. |
двойный |
двойную |
двойное |
двойные |
|||
instr. |
двойным |
двойной |
двойным |
двойными |
|||
loc. |
двойном |
двойной |
двойном |
двойных |
|||
|
|
||||||
m. |
f. |
n. |
|||||
nom. |
хороший |
хорошая |
хорошее |
хорошие |
|||
gen. |
хорошего |
хорошей |
хорошего |
хороших |
|||
dat. |
хорошему |
хорошей |
хорошему |
хорошим |
|||
acc. |
хороший |
хорошую |
хорошее |
хорошие |
|||
instr. |
|